The digital transformation has introduced "crowdshipping" or platform-based courier work through apps like Uber Eats, DoorDash, and Deliveroo [5, 10]. This shift has sparked a significant debate regarding employment status:
: Critics argue that the self-employed model often leaves workers without traditional benefits or social protection [10, 30]. Challenges in the Field COURIERS
While the technology behind delivery continues to advance, the human element—the speed, reliability, and local knowledge of the individual courier—remains the indispensable core of modern trade [8, 21]. and Deliveroo [5
